Fire in Dipterocarp Forests
Johann G. Goldammer, Berthold Seibert, and Werner Schindele
This paper is an update of two earlier versions which were published in 1990 and 1996:
Goldammer, J.G., and B.Seibert. 1990. The impact of droughts and forest fires on tropical lowland rain forest of Estern Borneo. In: Fire in the tropical biota. Ecosystem processes and global challenges (J.G.Goldammer, ed.), 11-31. Ecological Studies 84, Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg-New York, 497 p.
Goldammer, J.G., B.Seibert, and W.Schindele. 1996. Fire in dipterocarp forests. In: Dipterocarp forest ecosystems: Towards sustainable management (A.Schulte and D.Schöne, eds.), 155-185. World Scientific Publ., Singapore-New Jersey-London-Hongkong, 666 pp.
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. The Lowland Dipterocarp Rain Forest
2.1 Impacts of Climatic Variability on Fire Regimes
2.2 Modern and Historic ENSO Events and Wildfires
2.3 The Wildfires of 1982-83
3. Fire in Seasonal Forests
4. Fire Climax Pine Forests in South Asia’s Tropical Submontane and Montane Altitudes: In Competition with Dipterocarps
5. Fire in Dipterocarp Forests: Impacts on the Regional and Global Atmosphere
6. Conclusions
7. References
Abstract
Abundant charcoal in forest soils gives evidence of prehistoric and historic natural and anthropogenic wildfires in perhumid lowland and in seasonal Dipterocarp forest types of continental and insular South Asia. Favourable conditions for the occurrence of historic and contemporary rain forest fires are associated with cyclic droughts caused by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation [ENSO] event. The escalating pressure of wildfires on the Dipterocarp forest biome originates from swidden agriculture systems and forest conversion programs. A detailed study of the ecological consequences of the wildfires of 1982-83 was conducted on an area of 2.7×106 ha of rain forest in East Kalimantan. The results show that Dipterocarps are very susceptible to fire and are replaced by pioneer and fire-tolerant species which occupy the disturbed sites or survive the immediate fire effects. Smoke from forest conversion burning causes considerable environmental problems reducing visibility, and affecting human health. In addition, emissions from forest fires may even influence the atmospheric chemistry on a global scale.
1. Introduction
Lowland tropical rain forests have long been regarded as ecosystems in which natural fire was excluded due to fuel characteristics and the prevailing moist environment (RICHARDS, 1966; MUTCH, 1970; MUELLER-DOMBOIS, 1981). Recent findings, however, demonstrate that climate variability and increasing human impacts on the rain forest biome since the late Pleistocene have favored the occurrence of natural and anthropogenic fires in the Amazon Basin and in East Kalimantan (SANFORD et al., 1985; SALDARRIAGA and WEST, 1986; GOLDAMMER and SEIBERT 1989, 1990). It has also been demonstrated that fuel characteristics and the influence of drought on the microclimate and flammability of rain forest may create conditions suitable for the occurrence and spread of wildfires in primary rain forests (KAUFFMANN and UHL, 1990). In addition, the rapidly increasing influence of humans on tropical rainforests is causing an overall degradation of rain forest vegetation, leading to selection of pyrophytic life forms and formation of communities characterized by high flammability and short-return interval fires (MUELLER-DOMBOIS and GOLDAMMER, 1990; GOLDAMMER, 1991, 1993; GOLDAMMER and PRICE, 1995).
During the dry spell of 1982-1983 wildfires in the Indonesian and Malaysian provinces on Borneo island affected more than 5×106 ha of primary and secondary rain forests. These fires were the result of extensive land-clearing activities, and an extreme drought attributed to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation [ENSO] event. In the aftermath of the fires, a series of research projects investigated the impact of fire on rain forest vegetation.
This chapter is an update of GOLDAMMER and SEIBERT (1990) and provides a synthesis of the authors and other’s investigations on the role and impact of fire in the dynamics of lowland tropical dipterocarp rain forest in East Kalimantan. In order to understand past and current fire regimes, a brief description of the influence of climatic change and climatic oscillation on rain forest flammability and fire occurrence is presented.
2. The Lowland Dipterocarp Rain Forest
2.1 Impacts of Climatic Variability on Fire Regimes
2.2 Modern and Historic ENSO Events and Wildfires
2.3 The Wildfires of 1982-83
5. Fire in Dipterocarp Forests: Impacts on the Regional and Global Atmosphere
6. Conclusions
It has been recognized that in South Asia growing human population pressure leads to increasing occurrence of human-caused wildfires in the various types of Dipterocarp forests and its degraded forms, leading to loss of biodiversity, forest cover, site productivity and stability and resulting in significant economic losses. Additional problems are caused by the emissions from burning which negatively affect the regional air quality and may have considerable influence on the global atmosphere.
However, many open questions remain regarding the role of natural and early anthropogenic fire in the history of the Dipterocarp forest which has co-evolved with various other natural disturbances. Have drought- and fire-triggered disturbances of the Dipterocarp biome supported the evolution of Dipterocarps as gap opportunists? Have recurrent wildfires favoured the abundant occurrence of fire-tolerant Bornean ironwood [Eusideroxylon zwageri]?
One of the important questions is related to the evolutionary history of the rain forest. FLENLEY (1992) reminds us that the glacial climates, which on the whole were more arid than the present conditions, comprised ca. 80% of the last two million years. Fire may have played an important role during these prehistoric epochs in contributing to shape forest islands (refugia) and to control the flow of genes between the islands of species diversification (GOLDAMMER, 1993a).
While forest ecologists are still seeking answers for many open questions, it is generally agreed that action must be taken to protect the remaining Dipterocarp forests from indiscriminate burning in the wake of land-use changes and other contemporary human influences. Indonesia has begun to commit its national policy towards a better protection of the forest resources against fire by developing the “Long-Term Integrated Forest Fire Management System for Indonesia” (BAPPENAS 1992). The implementation of fire management projects on the field level is underway, e.g., the Integrated Forest Fire Management Project in East Kalimantan. Indonesia also declared new measures for preventing future smoke pollution in the region. In addition, Indonesia and its neighbouring ASEAN countries have decided recently to jointly establish an early warning system and emergency response procedures to cope with fire and smoke problems. As of this writing this chapter the International Tropical Timber Organizaton (ITTO) is preparing the Guidelines for Tropical Forest Fire Management which shall give advice to the national governments to prepare national strategies and to foster international cooperation (GOLDAMMER and MANAN, 1995; ITTO, 1995).
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